Recent years have brought profound technological advances to the world in the use of electric-powered vehicles. Green number plates can increasingly be seen on city streets and the trademarks of operators of electric scooter rental companies have become an integral part of the urban landscape. The increasing environmental awareness of societies and the growing aspirations of highly developed countries for pro-climate measures have made the development of electromobility not only a natural consequence of technological progress, but also a highly desirable phenomenon for the current authorities of individual countries [1]. When making electoral decisions, an increasing proportion of citizens declare that they take the subject of global warming seriously [2]. It is therefore not surprising that many representatives of political groups often mention the need to take visible measures to reduce the risk of dangerous climate change for the earth and its inhabitants. As Professor Jens Borken-Kleefeld of the Technical University of Dresden explains, “A car journey emits more CO2 than an aeroplane journey per person-kilometre. And given that CO2 lasts longer than other gases in the atmosphere, cars have a much more detrimental effect on climate change in the long term” [3]. In view of the opinion quoted, which does not deviate in principle from the accepted view in the world of natural sciences, it is worth considering – to what extent, in the coming decades, the development of electromobility will progress [4]. The discussed technological area, as a field concerning locally emission-free vehicles, may significantly contribute to the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and, consequently, minimise the risk of broadening the greenhouse effect and progressive global warming.
In order to carry out a properly precise and complete analysis of forecasts for the future of electromobility in Poland and worldwide, it is first necessary to understand the foundations of the development of this technological trend. This article will discuss the basic issues related to the development of electromobility in a historical perspective, by identifying landmark events for the growth of this technological branch.
The story of the appearance of the first electric cars on the road is not linked to one country or inventor. It was a complex process that required a series of breakthroughs leading to the first electric vehicles. Its origins date back to the first half of the 19th century.
In the early 19th century, innovators from Hungary, the Netherlands and the United States began to tackle the idea of a battery-powered vehicle, resulting in some of the first small electric cars. The forerunner among the inventors was Hungarian Ányos Jedlik, who designed a small model car with an electric motor in 1828. Others were the Scottish engineer Robert Anderson, who developed the first primitive electric carriage between 1832 and 1839, and the Dutch professor Sibrandus Stratingh and his assistant Christopher Becker, who also developed a compact electric car in 1835 [5].
In 1834, Thomas Devenport, an American inventor of Scottish origin, built the first electric car, which drew its energy from a Volta galvanic battery. At that time, knowledge of electricity was only in its infancy and light bulbs did not yet exist. In fact, Volta’s galvanic cell, which served as the power supply for Devenport’s car, was just over 30 years old at the time and considered a precursor to today’s batteries [6]. It is also worth noting that during the period when Devenport was working on his invention, other revolutionary developments in communications were taking place, such as the telegraph, the development of which had a significant impact on accelerating the exchange of information at a distance. The telephone, although not yet patented by Alexander Graham Bell, who did not do so until 42 years later, was also already in development. It can therefore be said that the 19th century saw huge advances in science and technology, resulting in the birth of many revolutionary inventions and innovations, such as Devenport’s electric cars.
Due to the need for greater battery capacity, early experiments with electric vehicles did not lead to practical solutions. It was not until the second half of the 19th century that French and English inventors began to work on creating more functional electric cars. In 1865, French scientist Gaston Plante invented a more efficient battery, which was perfected by Camille Faure in 1881. These developments made it possible to build practical electric vehicles. On 24 April 1899, the ‘Jamais Contente’, a bullet-shaped car powered by an electric motor, reached a record speed of 105.9 km/h, breaking the previous land speed record of 92.78 km/h of 4 March 1899 held by the French racing driver Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat [7].
In 1900, the first ever front-drive electric car made its debut, designed by 25-year-old Ferdinand Porsche. Just three decades later, the same designer founded a company signed with his name. This vehicle was equipped with batteries weighing around a tonne, allowing it to cover a distance of 50 km at a top speed of 50 km/h. For comparison, modern batteries in electric cars weigh around 200-300 kilograms [8]. In the same year, the aforementioned inventor also created the first four-wheel drive car with electric motors located at each wheel. Interestingly, this was not only the first electric 4×4 car, but in general the first car equipped with this kind of system in automotive history. Ferdinand gave the vehicle the name Lohner-Porsche. The car featured four electric motors built into the wheel hubs. The car was designed with mountain racing in mind, and its big disadvantage was its enormous weight of 1,800 kg due to the large number of lead-acid batteries. Nevertheless, the vehicle was able to reach a speed of 60 km/h. Unfortunately, only one example was built for economic reasons.
In 1903, Henry Ford learned that his friend Thomas Edison was working on battery technology for vehicles. At a time when the internal combustion car industry was extremely buoyant, looking for alternatives to petrol engines was not a popular phenomenon. In 1914, it was reported that Edison-Ford was working on an electric car. Ford spoke publicly about how the biggest problem in building an electric car was to build a lightweight battery that would operate for long distances without needing to be recharged. An investment of $1.5 million was made in the project, but despite all efforts, the battery capacity could not be achieved, making it impossible to create a competitive electric car against the petrol vehicles of the time. Problems with battery capacity, already apparent at the time, accompany electromobility to this day.
For electric cars, at the beginning of the 20th century, the competition was mainly petrol and steam-powered cars. At that time, internal combustion engines were only at an early stage of development; to drive, the vehicle had to be started beforehand with a hand crank. The main disadvantage of steam propulsion, however, was the long time needed to get the car ready – about 45 minutes. The growing popularity of electric cars should therefore come as no surprise, especially as access to electricity became far more widespread in the early 20th century. For some reason, however, the development of electromobility has declined rapidly, and internal combustion vehicles have almost completely monopolised the passenger car market over time. The Ford Model T, one of the first combustion cars to be produced on a mass scale, certainly contributed to this. The price of this vehicle was even several times lower than competing electric-powered machines. Before 1912, a petrol-powered car cost only $650, while an electric roadster cost as much as $1,750. In the same year, Charles Kettering introduced an innovation, the electric starter, which eliminated the need to manually crank the engine [9]. In addition, the declining popularity of electromobility was influenced by factors such as:
– the short range that the vehicles were able to travel on a single charge;
– the high cost of making and repairing the car;
– operational disadvantages due to the inconvenience of having to recharge the batteries in a time-consuming manner;
– high vehicle weight due to the weight of the battery.
Electric cars partially returned to favour after the end of the Second World War thanks to the invention of the transistor. This device is considered a groundbreaking invention in the field of electronics and especially in the area of electromobility, as it allowed for the miniaturisation of electronic devices by replacing electron tubes. In 1972, Henney Kilowatt launched the first electric car based on transistor technology, which reached speeds of up to 96 km/h and could be driven for one hour on a single charge [10].
In 1972, BMW unveiled its first electric car, the 1602 Electric model. The car could accelerate to 50 km/h in 8 seconds, but the range on a single charge was only 30 km. BMW produced two examples; the car did not enter mass production.
In the late 1990s, the first mass-produced electric car – the EV1 by General Motors – came on the market. Initially, the car was only available to residents of Los Angeles, Tucson and Phoenix as part of a lease and research and development programme. However, despite its initial success, GM abandoned work on electric cars and wound up the project at the start of the new millennium, reclaiming all the cars.
The 1990s saw the first series-produced hybrid cars, and in 1997 Toyota began producing and selling the Prius model. Three years later, the car hit the European market and appeared in dealerships. Due to its relative sales success, the Prius model changed the way we look at the potential profits that can be made from selling cars made with hybrid technology [11].
Although electromobility is a phenomenon that is much more talked about in the public debate, and the quibbling about the possible purchase of an electric car increasingly accompanies the choices of today’s consumers, it is worth bearing in mind that the very concept of developing electric-powered cars is by no means new. However, history shows that in previous centuries, social and technical conditions were not conducive to possible progress in this field. Nowadays, however, due to the increasing environmental awareness of society, as well as the inevitable phenomenon of the gradual depletion of certain raw materials, analysis and research in the field of electromobility are acquiring particular social relevance.
REFERENCES:
[1] https://fppe.pl/fakty-i-mity-o-pojazdach-elektrycznych-w-polsce/
[2]https://naukawpolsce.pl/aktualnosci/news%2C92385%2Csondaz-wiekszosc-doroslych-polakow-powaznie-traktuje-globalne-ocieplenie
[3]https://nauka.money.pl/artykul/samochod-czy-samolot-debata-o-podrozowaniu-i-zmianach-klimatu,12,0,927500.html
[4] http://eko.org.pl/index_trendy.php?dzial=2&kat=17&art=1591
[5] https://e-magazyny.pl/baza-wiedzy/historia-samochodow-elektrycznych/
[6] https://efl.pl/pl/biznes-i-ty/artykuly/historia-samochodow-elektrycznych
[7] https://autokult.pl/historia-rekordow-predkosci,6808019164948609a
[8] https://knaufautomotive.com/pl/akumulatory-samochodowe-w-autach-elektrycznych/
[9]https://autoturn.net.pl/wsparcie-autoturn/s%C5%82owniczek/charles-franklin-kettering.html
[10]https://businessinsider.com.pl/technologie/motoryzacja/pierwszy-samochod-elektryczny-na-swiecie-historia-motoryzacji/n1gzx28
[11]https://www.auto-swiat.pl/wiadomosci/aktualnosci/hybrydy-toyoty-maja-juz-20-lat/d72w4vv
SOURCES:
1. Kwiatkiewicz Piotr , Szczerbowski Radosław , Śledzik Waldemar – Electromobility. Infrastructure environment and technical challenges of intra-regional policy; FNCE 2020 ed;
2. Pieriegud Jana , Gajewski Jerzy , Paprocki Wojciech – Elektromobility in Poland against the background of European and global trends; published by CeDeWu Sp. z o.o. 2019 r.;
3 Smil Vaclav – Energy and civilisation. This is how history is made;; published by Editio 2022.
