What are drones? This would seem to be how an article on their history should begin. There are many definitions. A rather dated definition of the law doctrine describes drones as ‘powered aircraft that do not have a human operator on board, that use lift to maintain themselves in the air, that can fly autonomously according to a programme established before take-off or be remotely controlled, that can be reused and that can carry armament or other equipment’ [I].
Analysing the above, it can be concluded that the concept of an unmanned aerial vehicle is so broad that the origins of the concept of an object capable of remaining in the air for some time can be traced back to ancient times. Thus, at the turn of the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the Greek scientist Archytas of Taranto, considered to be the founder of mechanics, developed the concept of a flying robot, pigeon-like in appearance, whose propulsion was to be based on steam. This wood-built invention was capable of covering several hundred metres in steady flight [II]. A case of the use of unmanned aerial vehicles probably for the first time for military purposes, on the other hand, was the use of paper balloons filled with oil lamps by Chinese General Zhuge Liang, who used them to disorientate the enemy during combat [III].
The idea of using air-capable military objects came into use again in the 19th century. Following the outbreak of the 1848 uprising in Italy, Austrian troops carried out a naval blockade of the city of Venice. As the blockade prolonged, the following year the first ever bombardment was carried out using hot air balloons, some of which dropped explosive charges over the city. The operation was hampered by atmospheric conditions, which prevented most of the balloons from reaching their targets, deviating from their original course. It is also worth mentioning that some of the balloons were flared by Austrian troops. Although the city capitulated a few days after the attack, it is difficult to see the operation as a military success. However, apart from the undoubted psychological aspect, the main reasons for the capitulation were the conditions in the city as a result of the blockade, rather than the bombardment, during which, out of around 200 balloons released, only a small part reached its target [IV].
The creation of the first unmanned vehicle, which from today’s perspective could be called a drone, is attributed to Serbian inventor Nicola Tesla. In 1898, he developed the first ever radio-controlled vehicle. This vehicle was a boat controlled via several radio frequencies, called a teleautomaton. Despite the sensation that the vehicle caused when it was presented to the public at an exhibition in Madison Square Garden, it failed to attract the interest of the authorities. At the time, few people knew what radio waves were and what applications they could have [V].
In the following years, ways of remote control were developed. In 1906, George Lawrence, through the use of a kite system, counterweights and a 1.5 km long cable, took several photographs of the earthquake-damaged San Francisco [VI]. An important development in the unmanned aircraft category came with the First World War (1914-1918). The countries involved in the conflict were primarily looking for new and more effective ways to fleece the enemy. The aircraft being developed at the time were essentially flying bombs. Charles Kettering developed an object that was designed to flare the enemy at a distance of 80 km from the launch site. Presented in 1918, the Kettering Bug passed the testing phase and was used in the battlefield. Ultimately, the bomb’s low effectiveness of only about 22% caused the programme to be abandoned. Interestingly, earlier in 1916, the British had come up with the idea of bombing German Zeppelins using radio-controlled remote-controlled aircraft. These were to ram German airships, which at the time, however, proved impossible for technical reasons. A prototype of such an aircraft, called the Ruston Proctor AT, was built, but did not ultimately get beyond the testing phase [VII].
After the end of the war, the development of drones slowed down. Landing a radio-controlled machine proved to be the biggest problem. A new concept for the use of drones was born in the 1930s, when a British man, Reginald Denny, began producing and selling toy, small-sized, remote-controlled aircraft in the United States. After achieving considerable interest, he began work on developing larger objects that could be used on a military range as imitations of real aircraft for anti-aircraft gunnery training. This is how Radioplane One was developed. In rapid succession, the design was refined for military use until, in 1941, the US Army ordered several thousand examples of the OQ-2, a machine whose propulsion was based on a twin-cylinder engine in a boxer configuration, driving two counter-rotating, twin-bladed propellers. Control was by radio commands and the machine itself could also, with the help of a parachute, land. The speed achieved by the first ever drone was as high as 190 km/h with a 6 hp engine, a wingspan of 372 cm, a length of 265 cm and a weight of 47 kg [VIII].
When analysing the constructions of the Second World War, it is impossible not to mention the famous, deceptively aeroplane-like V-1 flying bombs. The first combat use of the V-1 was on the night of 13/14 June 1944. London was chosen as the target of the attack. Ultimately, during the war, these objects used on a scale of more than 22,000 claimed almost 6,000 lives and caused injury to some 40,000 people. The design had a pulse engine that propelled a projectile, which was 850 kg in weight and measured 8.35 m, and reached speeds of up to around 650 km/h [IX]. Ultimately, although only 6 per cent of attempts to use the V-1 were unsuccessful, the flying bomb did not become a fulfilment of the definition of the propaganda term wunderwaffe, but it was nevertheless the first flying object of its kind capable of attacking a target without a pilot [X].
The post-war era, the advent of a period of rivalry between the two superpowers (USSR AND USA) brought significant advances in the development of thermal imaging cameras, navigation systems and electronics. This, in turn, increased the capabilities of military intelligence, which, as part of reconnaissance, needed undetectable means, capable of penetrating the enemy’s airspace, while being able to return to the place of take-off, or send the information gathered back to the operator before destruction. Thus, for example, during the Korean War (1950-1953), work began on one of the first unmanned helicopters, the QH-50. This helicopter, controlled by an operator remaining on board the ship (the QH-50 served from the decks of destroyers and frigates incapable of carrying typical manned helicopters), was used for intelligence missions to locate enemy positions, while being able to launch an attack using a carried torpedo, or other payload. Later designs of the QH-50 had a range of about 48 km and were capable of developing speeds of up to 150 km/h. Deployed into service in 1962, the remotely piloted helicopter served in the US Army until 1979, taking part in roles including the Vietnam War and the Cuban Missile Crisis [XI].
The development of GPS, computer systems and their miniaturisation contributed in the 1970s to the start of work on machines resembling today’s drones [XII]. Israeli consortia such as Israel Aerospace Industry, and the Tadiran Electronic System began to gain prominence in construction. It was at this time that drones which were the prototypes of the now world-famous Predators began to be developed, such as the Israeli-American-produced Pioneer drone from the 1980s. Developed by the aforementioned Israel Aerospace Industry and the US-based AAI Corporation, the Pioneer (still in service today) was designed for correcting naval artillery fire and searching for targets. Powered by a 27 hp two-stroke internal combustion engine, the machine lands like a typical aircraft and takes off from a runway or special catapult. The drone reaches a top speed of 200 km/h, a ceiling of 4,500 m and a range of 540 km. At the same time, its flight can last up to four hours. The advantages of Pioneer drones were exploited during the Gulf conflict, including in operations codenamed Desert Shield (1990) and Desert Storm (1991), where they were appreciated as vital support in reconnaissance and reconnaissance missions, taking part in a total of around 300 reconnaissance and reconnaissance operations. About later years, Pioneer drones were used in conflicts in Bosnia, Somalia and Iraq [XIII].
The UAVs in use today are largely based on designs from the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The permanent introduction of the Predator into service in 1997 changed the face of modern armed conflicts, when it was retrofitted with missiles. From 2001 onwards, when the modernisation of the famous unmanned aircraft took place, it can be assumed that the era of so-called combat drones began. Operations in Iraq and Afghanistan showed that the use of drones goes beyond the realm of intelligence and can also be used to attack ground targets, protect critical infrastructure or eliminate selected targets without prior detection. 20 years later, in the war in Ukraine, the use of drones on both sides of the conflict is evident, and the fame of one of them, the Bayraktar TB2, has even penetrated mass culture, when a song about the eponymous unmanned aircraft was recorded.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that nowadays drones have also become significantly widespread in the civilian industry and consequently – they are no longer associated only with the military. Nowadays, almost everyone can afford to buy a drone, which can be used for both recreational and commercial purposes. The market offers various models of drones, with prices starting from just over PLN 1 000. For
example, in the case of drones used by the military, the price of the Turkish Bayraktar TB2
kit, including the drone itself, may be as high as nearly PLN 250 million.
M.SZ.
[I] Martyna Bucholc, Unmanned aerial systems – contemporary dimensions and perspectives, [in:] M. Szuniewicz (ed.), Automation and robotisation of the battlefield as a challenge for international law, AMW Academic Publishing House, Gdynia 2015.
[II] https://niezalezna.pl/kultura-i-historia/historia/pierwszy-starozytny-robot/435359 [accessed 01.11.2023].
[III] Jacek Chojnacki, Dominika Pasek. (2019). A history of the use of unmanned aerial vehicles. International Security Yearbook, 11(1), 174-189. https://doi.org/10.34862/rbm.2017.1.11 [Accessed 01.11.2023].
[IV] Ibid; Paweł Bukowski, Grzegorz Szala, Unmanned aerial vehicles – genesis, present and future, in Czasopismo naukowo-techniczne 11(6) 2018, 5-19.
[V] Ibid; https://wynalazki.andrej.edu.pl/index.php/wynalazki/36-t/1594-teleautomaton [accessed 01.11.2023].
[VI] P. Bukowski, G. Szala, Unmanned …, in Scientific and Technical Journal 11(6) 2018, 5-19.
[VII] Ibid; https://www.bezpiecznelotnisko.eu/posts/wojskowe-bezzalogowe-statki-powietrzne [accessed 01.11.2023].
[VIII] P. Bukowski, G. Szala, Unmanned …, in Scientific and Technical Journal 11(6) 2018, 5-19.
[IX] https://zbiam.pl/artykuly/brytyjskie-zmagania-z-niemieckimi-broniami-odwetowymi-v-1-i-v-2/ [ accessed 02.11.2023].
[X] J. Chojnacki, D. Pasek. (2019). History…, 11(1), 174-189. https://doi.org/10.34862/rbm.2017.1.11 [Accessed 01.11.2023].
[XI] https://www.net-maquettes.com/pl/pictures/gyrodyne-qh-50-dash/ [ accessed 02.11.2023].
[XII] J. Chojnacki, D. Pasek. (2019). History…, 11(1), 174-189. https://doi.org/10.34862/rbm.2017.1.11 [Accessed 01.11.2023].
[XIII] Ibid; https://www.bezpiecznelotnisko.eu/posts/dronizacja-czyli-o-bezzalogowych-statkach-powietrznych-slow-kilka [accessed 02.11.2023].
